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Communication and Network

Physical Connection

Twisted-pair Cable

Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between neighboring pairs. In anotehr definition, it is also a type of cable that consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around one another. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. While twisted-pair cable is used by older telephone networks and is the least expensive type of local-area network (LAN) cable, most networks contain some twisted-pair cabling at some point along the network. In balanced pair operation, the two wires carry equal and opposite signals and the destination detects the difference between the two. This is known as differential mode transmission. Noise sources introduce signals into the wires by coupling of electric or magnetic fields and tend to couple to both wires equally.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, or coax, is an electrical cable with an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer, and finally covered with a thin insulating layer on the outside. It is also known as a type of wire that consists of a center wire surrounded by insulation and then a grounded shield of braided wire. The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference. Coaxial cabling is the primary type of cabling used by the cable television industry and is also widely used for computer networks, such as Ethernet. Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals, in applications such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network connections, and distributing cable television signals. Coaxial cable should not be confused with other shielded cable used for carrying lower frequency signals such as audio signals. Shielded cable is similar in that it consists of a central wire or wires surrounded by a tubular shield conductor, but it is not constructed with the precise conductor spacing needed to function efficiently as a radio frequency transmission line.

Fiber-optic Cable

A technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data. A fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting messages modulated onto light waves. Fiber optics has several advantages over traditional metal communications lines:

• Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means that they can carry more data.


• Fiber optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to interference.


• Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.
  
• Data can be transmitted digitally rather than analogically.

Fiber optics is a particularly popular technology for local-area networks. In addition, telephone companies are steadily replacing traditional telephone lines with fiber optic cables.

Network Terms

Node

In communication networks, a node is a connection point, either a redistribution point or a communication endpoint. The definition of a node depends on the network and protocol layer referred to. A physical network node is an active electronic device that is attached to a network, and is capable of sending, receiving, or forwarding information over a communications channel. A passive distribution point such as a distribution frame is consequently not a node. A node can be a computer or some other device, such as a printer. Every node has a unique network address, sometimes called a Data Link Control (DLC) address or Media Access Control (MAC) address. In data communication, a physical network node may either be a data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) such as a modem, hub, bridge or switch; or a data terminal equipment (DTE) such as a digital telephone handset, a printer or a host computer, for example a router, a workstation or a server.

Client

Client-server computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or work loads between service providers (servers) and service requesters, called clients.Often clients and servers operate over a computer network on separate hardware. A server machine is a high-performance host that is running one or more server programs which share its resources with clients. A client is an application that runs on a personal computer or workstation and relies on a server to perform some operations. Standard networked functions such as email exchange, web access and database access, are based on the client-server model. The client-server model has become one of the central ideas of network computing. Specific types of clients include web browsers, email clients, and online chat client.

Server

A network server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other (client) computers over a local network or the Internet. Examples include Web servers, proxy servers, and FTP servers. It is also a computer or device on a network that manages network resources. Servers are often dedicated, meaning that they perform no other tasks besides their server tasks. On multiprocessing operating systems, however, a single computer can execute several programs at once. A server in this case could refer to the program that is managing resources rather than the entire computer.

Hub

A network hub or repeater hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model. The device is thus a form of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also participate in collision detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision. It is also known as a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. Hubs also often come with a BNC and/or AUI connector to allow connection to legacy 10BASE2 or 10BASE5 network segments. A network hub is a fairly unsophisticated broadcast device.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A wireless network interface controller (WNIC) is a network card which connects to a radio-based computer network, unlike a regular network interface controller (NIC) which connects to a wire-based network such as token ring or ethernet. This card uses an antenna to communicate through microwaves. An Ethernet network interface card is installed in an available slot inside the computer. The NIC assigns a unique address called a MAC (media access control) to the machine. The MACs on the network are used to direct traffic between the computers. The back plate of the network interface card features a port that looks similar to a phone jack, but is slightly larger. This port accommodates an Ethernet cable, which resembles a thicker version of a standard telephone line. Ethernet cable must run from each network interface card to a central hub or switch.

Network Operating System (NOS)

A networking operating system is an operating system that contains components and programs that allow a computer on a network to serve requests from other computer for data and provide access to other resources such as printer and file systems. It is also an operating system that includes special functions for connecting computers and devices into a local-area network (LAN). Novell Netware, Artisoft's LANtastic, Microsoft Windows Server, and Windows NT are examples of network operating system.

Distributed Processing

A system consisting of a network of microcomputers performing certain functions and linked with a main computer used for more complex tasks. A distributed system consists of multiple autonomous computers that communicate through a computer network. The computers interact with each other in order to achieve a common goal. A computer program that runs in a distributed system is called a distributed program, and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs. It also refers to any of a variety of computer systems that use more than one computer, or processor, to run an application. This includes parallel processing, in which a single computer uses more than one CPU to execute programs. Most distributed processing systems contain sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels out programs to utilize them. Another form of distributed processing involves distributed databases, databases in which the data is stored across two or more computer systems. The database system keeps track of where the data is so that the distributed nature of the database is not apparent to users.

Host Computer

Main or controlling computer connected to other computers or terminals to which it provides data or computing services via a network. It is similar to a server in a client-server architecture. It is also a computer system that is accessed by a user working at a remote location. The system that contains the data is called the host, while the computer at which the user sits is called the remote terminal. Another term to Host Computer is that it is a computer connected to a TCP/IP network, including the Internet.

Network Manager

NetworkManager is a software utility aimed at simplifying the use of computer networks on Linux and other Unix-like operating systems. NetworkManager is designed in two components: a service which manages connections and reports network changes, and a graphical desktop applet which allows the user to manipulate network connections. Both components are intended to be reasonably portable, and the applet is available to desktop environments which implement the Freedesktop.org System Tray Protocol, including GNOME, KDE and Xfce. As the components communicate via D-Bus, applications can be written to be “link-aware”, or replace the provided applet entirely. One example is KNetworkManager, a KDE frontend to NetworkManager developed by Novell for SUSE Linux.

Secondary Storage

Disk Caching

A portion of RAM used to speed up access to data on a disk. The RAM can be part of the disk drive itself (sometimes called a hard disk cache or buffer) or it can be general-purpose RAM in the computer that is reserved for use by the disk drive (sometimes called a soft disk cache). Hard disk caches are more effective, but they are also much more expensive, and therefore smaller. A soft disk cache works by storing the most recently accessed data in the RAM cache. When a program needs to access new data, the operating system first checks to see if the data is in the cache before reading it from the disk.

Redundant arrays of inexpensive disks (RAID)

RAID is a category of disk drives that employ two or more drives in combination for fault tolerance and performance. RAID disk drives are used frequently on servers but aren't generally necessary for persona computers. RAID is also a technology that allowed computer users to achieve high levels of storage reliability from low-cost and less reliable PC-class disk-drive components, via the technique of arranging the devices into arrays for redundancy. In simple words, RAID is a system of multiple hard drives for sharing or replicating data. RAID combines two or more physical hard disks into a single logical unit by using either special hardware or software. Hardware solutions often are designed to present themselves to the attached system as a single hard drive, so that the operating system would be unaware of the technical workings. There are three key concepts in RAID: mirroring, the copying of data to more than one disk; striping, the splitting of data across more than one disk; and error correction, where redundant data is stored to allow problems to be detected.

File Compression and Decompression

Data compression/File Compression is particularly useful in communications because it enables devices to transmit or store the same amount of data in fewer bits. Data compression or source coding is the process of encoding information using fewer bits than an un-encoded representation would use through use of specific encoding schemes.
Data compression is also widely used in backup utilities, spreadsheet applications, and database management systems. Certain types of data, such as bit-mapped graphics, can be compressed to a small fraction of their normal size. Compression is useful because it helps reduce the consumption of expensive resources, such as hard disk space or transmission bandwidth. On the downside, compressed data must be decompressed to be viewed (or heard), and this extra processing may be detrimental to some applications.

Input and Output

Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, or MICR, is a character recognition technology used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of cheques. The use of magnetic printiallows the characters to be read reliably even if they have been overprinted or obscured by other marks, such as cancellation stamps.MICR characters are printed in special typefaces with a magnetic ink or toner, usually containing iron oxide. As a machine decodes the MICR text, it first magnetizes the characters in the plane of the paper. MICR is the technology which allows the characters printed on the bottom of the check to be read by reader-sorter machines. The technology allows computers to read information (such as account numbers) off of printed documents.

Optical-character recognition

Optical-character recognition uses special preprinted characters that can be read by a light source and changed into machine-readable code. Optical-character recognition, usually abbreviated to OCR, is the mechanical or electronic recognition and translation of images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machine-editable text. Optical character recognition (using optical techniques such as mirrors and lenses) and digital character recognition (using scanners and computer algorithms) were originally considered separate fields. Optical-character recognition is a field of research in pattern recognition, artificial intelligence, and computer vision

Optical-mark recognition

Optical-mark recognition (OMR) is a process that allows certain marks or lines on special forms to be recognised by an optical mark reader, and input into a computer. It is also the process of capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys and tests. OMR is often used to score multiple-choice tests. Optical mark recognition (OMR) is the scanning of paper to detect the presence or absence of a mark in a predetermined position. Optical mark recognition has evolved from several other technologies.

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Dot Matrix Printer

A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer is a type of computer printer with a print head that runs back and forth, or in an up and down motion, on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like a typewriter. Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a "wire" or "pin", which is driven forward by the power of a tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through small levers. It is also a type of computer printer that uses tiny hammers in its print head to strike pins over an inked ribbon to form characters or images on paper, and is used mainly for multipart forms.

Plotter

A graphics printer that draws images with ink pens. It actually draws point-to-point lines directly from vector graphics files. The plotter was the first computer output device that could print graphics as well as accommodate full-size engineering and architectural drawings. Using different colored pens, it was also able to print in color long before inkjet printers became an alternative.

Photo Printer

A printer specialized for smaller prints such as 4x6" and 5x7". When first introduced in the mid-1990s, photo printers used dye sublimation for high quality printing because inkjet printing was not quite up to par. It is a printer (usually an inkjet printer) that is specifically designed to print high quality digital photos on photo paper. These printers usually have a very high number of nozzles and are capable of printing droplets as small as 1 picoliter.

Fax Machine

A device that sends and receives printed pages or images over telephone lines by converting them to and from electronic signals. It consists of an image scanner, a modem, and a printer. Digital fax machines first became popular in Japan, where they had a clear advantage over competing technologies like the teleprinter, since at the time it was faster to handwrite kanji than to type the characters. In many corporate environments, standalone fax machines have been replaced by "fax servers" and other computerized systems capable of receiving and storing incoming faxes electronically, and then routing them to users on paper or via an email . Such systems have the advantage of reducing costs by eliminating unnecessary printouts and reducing the number of inbound analog phone lines needed by an office.

Multifunctional Device

Multifunctional devices bring the worlds of copying, printing, finishing, and scanning together, all in one neat, efficient and cost-effective package. It is an office machine which incorporates the functionality of multiple devices in one, so as to have a smaller footprint in a home or small business setting or to provide centralized document management/distribution/production in a large-office setting. Two color MFPs of a similar speed will be in the same segment, despite having potentially very different feature sets, and therefore very different prices. From a marketing perspective, the manufacturer of the more expensive MFP would want to differentiate their product as much as possible to justify the price difference, and therefore the segment definition is avoided.

System Unit

Expansion Card

An expansion card in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard to add additional functionality to a computer system. It is also an electronic board or card added in a desktop computer or other non-portable computer to give that computer a new ability such as the ability to connect to another computer using a network cable .The primary purpose of an expansion card is to provide or expand on features not offered by the motherboard.

Network Interface Card

Network Interface Card is used to connect a computer to a n Ethernet network. The card provides an interface to the media. A network interface card (NIC) is a computer circuit board or card that is installed in a computer so that it can be connected to a network. Personal computers and workstations on a local area network ( LAN) typically contain a network interface card specifically designed for the LAN transmission technology, such as Ethernet or Token Ring

Cache Memory

Cache memory is random access memory ( RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. Cache memory is extremely fast memory that is built into a computer’s central processing unit or located next to it on a separate chip. The CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to run programs, improving overall system speed.

Plug & Play

In computing, plug and play is a term used to describe the characteristic of a computer bus, or device specification, which facilitates the discovery of a hardware component in a system, without the need for physical device configuration, or user intervention in resolving resource conflicts. Plug and Play provides automatic configuration of PC hardware and devices. For modern versions of Microsoft Windows, the system and its firmware must comply with Advanced Configuration and Power Interface Specification (ACPI).

Sockets

Computer sockets are the built-in interfaces on motherboards that accept various hardware components. When compatible devices are plugged into computer sockets, they communicate with the system to provide functionality. Dial-up modems, graphics cards and sound cards are just some examples. Computer sockets use standardized protocols to communicate with the devices that are designed to plug into them. Computer sockets in the 1980s were referred to as Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) slots, followed by Enhanced IDE (EIDE) slots.

Computer Chips

A computer chip is a small electronic circuit, also known as an integrated circuit, which is one of the basic components of most kinds of electronic devices, especially computers. Computer chips are small and are made of semiconductors that is usually composed of silicon, on which several tiny components including transistors are embedded and used to transmit electronic data signals. The first was developed at Texas Instruments by Jack Kilby in 1958, and the second was developed at Fairchild Semiconductor by Robert Noyce in 1958.

Computer Slots

Expansion slots are located on the motherboard, and openings on the back of the computer allow the ports on the cards that go in the slots to be accessed. Expansion slot openings are located on the back of the computer. It is also a slot located inside a computer on the motherboard or riser board that allows additional boards to be connected to it.

Serial Port

A socket on a computer used to connect a modem, data acquisition terminal or other device via a serial interface (one data bit following the other). Serial ports provide very slow speeds and have been superseded by USB and other faster interfaces for peripheral connections to desktop computers. Although still widely used in data acquisition, the serial port is no longer found on new computers. Earlier PCs used the port for the mouse, and earlier Macintoshes used it to attach a printer.

Parallel Port

A parallel port is a type of interface found on computers for connecting various peripherals. It is also known as a printer port or Centronics port. On PCs, the parallel port uses a 25-pin connector (type DB-25) and is used to connect printers, computers and other devices that need relatively high bandwidth. It is often called a Centronics interface after the company that designed the original standard for parallel communication between a computer and printer.

Universal Serial Bus (USB) port

USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a way of setting up communication between a computer and peripheral devices. USB is intended to replace many varieties of serial and parallel ports. USB can connect computer peripherals such as mice, keyboards, PDAs, gamepads and joysticks, scanners, digital cameras, printers, personal media players, flash drives, and external hard drives. single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices. Starting in 1996, a few computer manufacturers started including USB support in their new machines. It wasn't until the release of the best-selling iMac in 1998 that USB became widespread.

The Internet,The Web and Electronic Commerce

HTML

Hypertext Markup Language is a text based programming language used to create Web pages. It is a subset of

a broader language called SGML ( Standard Generalized Markup language) which is used for encoding and

formatting documents. HTML provides means to create structured documents by donating structural

semantics for text such as headings,paragraphs,list and e.t.c. The documents are text files which is a content that is meant to be rendered on a computer screen,encoded information that direct the text format on the screen and is generally hidden from the user.

Javascript

Javascript is a scripting language used to enable programmatic access to objects within other applications. Javascript is a dialect of the ECMAScript standard and is characterized as a dynamic and prototype-based language with first-class functions. It is primarily used in the form of client-side Javascript for the development of dynamic websites. It is also primarily used to write functions that are embedded in or included from HTML pages and interact with the Document Object Model (DOM) of the page. Javascript is loaded as human-readable code. Javascript was designed with Java's syntax and standard library in mind.

Applets

An Applet is a program written in the Java programming language that can be included in an HTML page,in the same way an image is included in a page. It is a small utility program, designed to perform a specific function within a larger program. On the web or internet, applets is used to make a webpage more attractive,interactive and useful. They are also a special programs thatcan be downloaded quickly. They provide animation,display graphics, and provide interactive games to web pages.

Intro to IT

Webmaster

A webmaster,also known as a web developer or a web architect is a person who is responsible for maintaining a

website. They are the people who know scripting languages like Java Script. The responsibility of a webmaster

is the regulation

and management of access rights of different users and also setting up a navigation website. They also have to

ensure that the

web servers,hardware and software are working properly.

Computer Support Specialist

There are does not know many people who how to use a computer. Thats where a computer specialist
comes in. He/She help people to use computers. They are the people who solves any problem with the
computer and they will fix it. They normally work 40-hours a week. Most of the computer support specialist
work in offices or computer labs. They normally answer questions by phone or by e-mail.

Technical Writer

The person responsible for writing hardware and software documentation, online help, technical definitions and technical product descriptions on Web sites. Quite often, the technical writer is given the task of documenting an application at the last minute, allowing very little time for a thorough understanding of all the options, let alone time for others to read and edit the material before it is published.Although technical writing is a skill that takes years to learn, and while some companies do appreciate it, most do not. Technical writers are often given less attention than other professionals in the field. In many enterprises, technical writing is considered a necessary evil. As a result, almost all of the documentation we read could be better, and much of it is downright indecipherable. It is no wonder that users and even technical people avoid reading manuals at all costs.

Software Engineer

A person who designs and programs system-level software, such as operating systems, database management systems (DBMSs) and embedded systems. The title is often used for programmers in the software industry who create commercial software packages, whether they be system level or application level. "Software engineer," "systems programmer" and "systems engineer" titles are often synonymous. Most software engineers work as employees or contractors. Software engineers work with businesses, government agencies, and non-profit organizations. Some software engineers work for themselves as freelancers. Some organizations have specialists to perform each of the tasks in the software development process. Other organizations required software engineers to do many or all of them. In large projects, people may specialize in only one role.

Network Administrator

A person who manages a local area communications network (LAN) within an organization. Responsibilities include network security, installing new applications, distributing software upgrades, monitoring daily activity, enforcing licensing agreements, developing a storage management program and providing for routine backups. Network administrator is a modern profession responsible for the maintenance of computer hardware and software that comprises a computer network. This normally includes the deployment, configuration, maintenance and monitoring of active network equipment. A related role is that of the network specialist, or network analyst, who concentrates on network design and security. The Network Administrator is usually the highest level of technical/network staff in an organization and will rarely be involved with direct user support. The Network Administrator will concentrate on the overall health of the network, server deployment, security, and ensuring that the network connectivity throughout a company's LAN/WAN infrastructure is on par with technical considerations at the network level of an organization's hierarchy. Network Administrators are considered Tier 3 support personnel that only work on break/fix issues that could not be resolved at the Tier1 (helpdesk) or Tier 2 (desktop/network technician) levels.

Database Administrator

A person responsible for the physical design and management of the database and for the evaluation, selection and implementation of the DBMS.In most organizations, the database administrator and data administrator are one and the same; however, when the two responsibilities are managed separately, the database administrator's function is more technical. Database administrators work in offices or labs. They usually work about 40 hours a week. But evening or weekend work may need to be done to meet deadlines. Telecommuting—working from home—is common for computer professionals.
Like other workers who spend long periods in front of a computer, database administrators can suffer eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems.Database administrators must be able to think logically. Being able to concentrate and pay close attention to detail is important. These computer specialists sometimes work on their own, but they often work in teams. They must be able to communicate with computer personnel, such as programmers and managers. They must also communicate with other staff who may have no computer training.

System Analyst

The person responsible for the development of an information system. Systems analysts design and modify systems by turning user requirements into a set of functional specifications, which are the blueprint of the system. They design the database or help design it if data administrators are available. They develop the manual and machine procedures and the detailed processing specifications for each data entry, update, query and report program in the system. Systems analysts are the architects, as well as the project leaders, of an information system. It is their job to develop solutions to users' problems, determine the technical and operational feasibility of their solutions, as well as estimate the costs to develop and implement them.

They develop prototypes of the system along with the users, so that the final specifications are examples of screens and reports that have been carefully reviewed. Experienced analysts leave no doubt in users' minds as to what is being developed, and they insist that all responsible users review and sign off on every detail. A systems analyst is responsible for researching, planning, coordinating and recommending software and system choices to meet an organization's business requirements. The systems analyst plays a vital role in the systems development process. A successful systems analyst must acquire four skills: analytical, technical, managerial, and interpersonal. Analytical skills enable systems analysts to understand the organization and its functions, which helps him/her to identify opportunities and to analyze and solve problems. Technical skills help systems analysts understand the potential and the limitations of information technology. The systems analyst must be able to work with various programming languages, operating systems, and computer hardware platforms.